When did the Pyu city-states exist?

The Pyu city-states existed c. 2nd century BCE – c. 1050 CE. On this map they are drawn AD 84–1045.

Southeast Asia · The Indianized kingdoms

Pyu city-states

City-states (a group of independent walled urban polities) · c. 2nd century BCE – c. 1050 CE

Type: City-states (a group of independent walled urban polities)
Existed: c. 2nd century BCE – c. 1050 CE
Shown on the map: AD 84–1045
Peak area: ~117,000 km² (per dataset)
Region: Southeast Asia

Origins & foundation

The Pyu were a Tibeto-Burman-speaking people who entered the Irrawaddy valley from Yunnan around the 2nd century BCE, their homeland reconstructed near Qinghai Lake. They founded walled settlements across the three great irrigated regions of Upper Burma: the Mu River valley, the Kyaukse plains, and the Minbu region. Beikthano (near Taungdwingyi), dated 200 BCE–100 CE, is the oldest excavated urban site; twelve walled cities have been unearthed in all. The "Pyu millennium" bridges Burma's Bronze/Iron Age and the classical Pagan era.

Political history & notable rulers

Each city-state was ruled by its own chief or king under Indian-style courts; no unified Pyu "empire" existed. Tang records mention 18 Pyu states with nine walled cities. Halin (founded 1st century CE, wooden gates radiocarbon-dated to 70 CE) was the premier city until Sri Ksetra superseded it in the 7th–8th century. Sri Ksetra hosted at least two dynasties: the Vikrama dynasty, which launched the Pyu calendar on 22 March 638, and a second founded by King Duttabaung on 25 March 739. Kings styled themselves with the Indian title varman. Sri Ksetra sent embassies to the Tang court in 800–802, accompanied by 35 musicians.

Economy, culture & religion

The economy rested on irrigated rice agriculture and overland/maritime trade between China and India; the Pyu minted silver coinage (conch and Srivatsa types) from the 5th century — the model for first-millennium mainland Southeast Asian coinage, though coinage vanished from Burma until the 19th century. From the 4th century the Pyu were predominantly Theravada Buddhist (a school linked to Andhra), with Mahayana, Tantric, and Hindu elements; Tang sources describe them as a peaceful, humane people. The Pyu script, derived from Brahmi, was likely ancestral to the Burmese script, and their calendar survives as the modern Burmese calendar. Cremation urn burials and tall cylindrical stupas (Bawbawgyi) became prototypes for Pagan architecture.

Peak & territorial extent

The realm stretched from Halin in the north to Sri Ksetra in the south, with trading reach to the Tenasserim coast and as far east as Óc Eo. Sri Ksetra, at ~1,400 hectares within 13 km of walls, was the largest city in precolonial Burma — bigger than Pagan or Mandalay.

Decline & end

Nanzhao raids began in the mid-8th century and culminated in 832, when Nanzhao warriors sacked Halin and carried off 3,000 prisoners. No evidence shows a violent overthrow; rather, the raids weakened the Pyu cities while Burman (Mranma) migrants moved in, founding a garrison at Pagan. By the late 10th century the Burmans led the Irrawaddy valley; the Pyu language survived to the late 12th century before the Pyu were absorbed into Burman ethnicity.

Legacy & modern connections

Halin, Beikthano, and Sri Ksetra were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site ("Pyu Ancient Cities") in 2014 — Myanmar's first. Pagan's kings claimed descent from the kings of Sri Ksetra and Tagaung, and Pyu city plans (12 gates, mandala layouts) shaped Burmese capitals down to 19th-century Mandalay; the Shwedagon's form descends from Pyu stupas.

Common questions

What were the Pyu city-states?: The Pyu were a Tibeto-Burman-speaking people who entered the Irrawaddy valley from Yunnan around the 2nd century BCE, their homeland reconstructed near Qinghai Lake. They founded walled settlements across the three great irrigated regions of Upper Burma: the Mu River valley, the Kyaukse plains, and the Minbu region.
When did the Pyu city-states exist?: The Pyu city-states existed c. 2nd century BCE – c. 1050 CE. On this map they are drawn AD 84–1045.
How large were the Pyu city-states at their height?: The realm stretched from Halin in the north to Sri Ksetra in the south, with trading reach to the Tenasserim coast and as far east as Óc Eo. Sri Ksetra, at ~1,400 hectares within 13 km of walls, was the largest city in precolonial Burma — bigger than Pagan or Mandalay.
Who ruled the Pyu city-states?: Each city-state was ruled by its own chief or king under Indian-style courts; no unified Pyu "empire" existed. Tang records mention 18 Pyu states with nine walled cities.
How did the Pyu city-states end?: Nanzhao raids began in the mid-8th century and culminated in 832, when Nanzhao warriors sacked Halin and carried off 3,000 prisoners. No evidence shows a violent overthrow; rather, the raids weakened the Pyu cities while Burman (Mranma) migrants moved in, founding a garrison at Pagan.
What did the economy and culture of the Pyu city-states rest on?: The economy rested on irrigated rice agriculture and overland/maritime trade between China and India; the Pyu minted silver coinage (conch and Srivatsa types) from the 5th century — the model for first-millennium mainland Southeast Asian coinage, though coinage vanished from Burma until the 19th century.
Why do the Pyu city-states still matter?: Halin, Beikthano, and Sri Ksetra were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site ("Pyu Ancient Cities") in 2014 — Myanmar's first. Pagan's kings claimed descent from the kings of Sri Ksetra and Tagaung, and Pyu city plans (12 gates, mandala layouts) shaped Burmese capitals down to 19th-century Mandalay; the Shwedagon's form descends from Pyu stupas.

Sources

Every source below was consulted while writing this entry.

Wikipedia: Pyu city-states en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyu_city-states

This entry was written from the sources above and last updated 10 September 2026.

This entry was researched and drafted with AI from the sources above, and has not been reviewed by a historian. How entries are made

Text available under CC BY-SA 4.0: reuse it with a credit to The World Through Time and a link to this page. Passages drawing on the Wikipedia articles listed above are also licensed CC BY-SA 4.0 by their contributors.

Border geometry for the map itself comes from Cliopatria v0.12 (Seshat Global History Databank, CC-BY-4.0).

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